Gravity
Introduction
This study came about as a result of experimental computer simulations of Coulomb forces and subsequent interactions between protons and electrons in hydrogen atoms as well as between quarks in protons and neutrons. The simulations showed a weak but consistent and robust attraction between particles with zero external total charge, irrespective of the simulation parameters imposed on the particles. Also, look at the older descriptions of London Dispersion Forces and Van der Waals Forces, which are earlier known consequences of the same effect of mutual polarization of atoms and molecules.
Gravity is caused by the net subatomic attraction between charges mutually forming dipoles. As such, it can be said to be part of quantum physics even if the underlying mechanism can be described in the context of Coulomb forces in easy-to-understand classical physics shown below.
Link to Hydrogen gravity simulations
The simulations presented below are performed in physically correct simulation software. The simulations shown use simple, electrically charged bodies to represent electrically charged particles using the known mass and charge of the particles in question. The simulations do not attempt to reflect any nuclear interactions beyond Coulomb forces between particles and bodies. See details below.
Charge posturing, dipole formation, and Coulomb attraction between 2 hydrogen atoms:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QB-DYEmRo3o
Mathematical evidence of unconditional net Coulomb attraction causing gravity between mutually polarizing hydrogen atoms.
Calculation of dipole offset distance X between positive and negative charges in hydrogen atoms while 1*10^-10 meter apart above.
External force:
K*e^2(1/(r-x)^2+1/(r+x)^2-2/r^2)
K=8.98755178787*10^9
e = 1.60217662*10^-19
r = 10^-10
Internal force:
K*e^2(1/(R-x)^2-1/(R+x)^2)
K = 8.98755178787*10^9
e = 1.60217662*10^-19
R = 5.291772*10^-11
External force = internal force:
K*e^2 (1/(r - x)^2 + 1/(r + x)^2 - 2/r^2) - K*e^2 (1/(R - x)^2 - 1/(R + x)^2) = 0
K*e^2 [(1/(r - x)^2 + 1/(r + x)^2 - 2/r^2) - (1/(R - x)^2 - 1/(R + x)^2)] = 0
(1/(r - x)^2 + 1/(r + x)^2 - 2/r^2) - (1/(R - x)^2 - 1/(R + x)^2) = 0
(1/(10^-10-x)^2 + 1/(10^-10+x)^2 - (2/10^-18) - (1/(5.291772*10^-11-x)^2 - 1/(5.291772*10^-11+x)^2)= 0
Answer: Dipole offset distance above: X = 7.1789*10^-12 meter
(Check: External Coulomb force = 1.86963*10^-44 Newton)
(Internal Coulomb reaction force = 1.86962*10^-44 Newton)
Coulomb dipole gravity between the two atoms is approximately = 1.8696*10^-44 Newton
Calculation of Newton gravity between two hydrogen atoms 1*10^-10 meter apart.
F = G*(m1*m2)/r^2
F = 6.674*10^-11(1.67 x 10^-27)^2/(1*10^-10)^2
F = 1.86131*10^-44 Newton
Gravity between two hydrogen atoms, according to Newton and the empirically known gravitational constant, is consequently 1.86131*10^-44 N.
The approximate net Coulomb attraction between dipoles according to the above Coulomb force calculation is 1.8696*10^-44 N.
The overwhelming correspondence between Newton's gravity and the approximately calculated Coulomb force leaves no room for another cause of gravity or any doubt about the fact that gravity is caused by the net Coulomb force between dipoles, such as mutually polarizing atoms
Effective charge
A hydrogen atom unaffected by external influences is centered to where the center of the electron orbital coincides with the center of charge of the proton. The compound charge of this atom = 0. However, when in the proximity of other charges, including other atoms, an atom becomes polarized to where the center of the electron orbital does not coincide with the center of charge of the proton. A polarized atom acts as a dipole with a very low effective positive charge at one end and the corresponding negative charge at the other end.
Calculating the effective dipole charge (e) of two hydrogen dipoles under Coulomb electric gravity:
K*e^2/r^2 = G*m^2/r^2
K = 8.98755178787*10^9
G = 6.674*10^-11
m = 1.6737236*10^-27
e^2 = G*m^2/K = 6.674*10^-11*(1.6737236*10^-27)^2
e^2 = [6.674*10^-11*(1.6737236*10^-27)^2]/8.98755178787*10^9
e^2 = [6.674*10^-11*2.80127169*10^-54)]/8.98755178787*10^9
e^2 = 18.69567598*10^-65/8.98755178787*10^9
e^2 = 2.080*10^-74
e = 1.442*10^-37 Coulomb
Compare this to the charge of the proton (or electron):
1.60217662*10^-19 Coulomb
As can be seen from the above, the effective charge of a hydrogen atom dipole is in this case a minuscule portion of the charge of any of the two constituents, the proton and the electron:
1.442*10^-37 Coulomb / 1.60217662*10^-19 Coulomb = 9.000*10^-19 of the charge of a proton.
The effective charge and the subsequent force of gravity are consequently very weak compared to the charges and forces at work in for example strong force.
Magnetism
A permanent magnet is characterized by electron orbitals being parallell and unidirectional. This creates a magnetic north pole on one end and a south pole on the other end. Take two of these and place them end to end such that the orbitals are still unidirectional and you get the force of magnetic attraction between the two. Turn one around and you get a force of magnetic repulsion between the two.
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the compound Coulomb force between currents of charge. Conductor coils replace the parallel ferromagnetic orbital planes with a coiled conductor carrying a current of electrons in parallel circular motions. Electromagnetic effects including the compound force between conductors A and B are complicated and best calculated by computer taking into account the geometry involved and forces between voltage A and charges in conductor B and vice versa.
Radiation
All charged particles are connected by electrostatic Coulomb force. This is undisputed and according to Cern this force propagates with the speed of c. When a charged particle or a group of particles is forced to oscillate, this oscillation is superimposed upon existing ES Coulomb radiation and transmitted to surrounding charged particles. Coulomb force radiations do not interfere under way. Instead the effect is determined by the recipient charge depending on the compounding of preexisting Coulomb forces and the frequency and force level of the additional Coulomb force(s) received. Examples are: Radio, wifi, microwave, light, and x-rays.
Gravitational lensing
Light is consequently propagated in form of an undulating Coulomb force which has the same effect on a body with mass as that caused by a mass with dipole Coulomb charge. This does not mean that light has what we call mass, only that it participates in dipole gravity and gravitational lensing as observed.
Gravity, dipole elongation and the atomic clock
An atomic clock runs 30 microseconds per day slower on earth than it does in GPS satellite orbit. This corresponds to a relative error of 3.472*10^-10.
A Hydrogen atomic clock uses hydrogen atoms as a frequency medium. In gravity free space a hydrogen atom is externally neutral while the electron orbit is centered around the proton. In earth gravity a hydrogen atom is slightly elongated into a dipole where the center of the electron orbit is offset from the center of charge of the proton. This slows the frequency of the electron orbit. Knowing the Coulomb attraction force between proton and electron in a hydrogen atom, as well as the Coulomb dipole gravity between the hydrogen atom and earth we can calculate the expected orbital disturbance and associated orbital frequency reduction of the electron in the hydrogen atom while in earth gravity.
1. Hydrogen atom centering force:
This is the electrostatic attraction between the electron and the proton in the hydrogen atom according to Coulombs law.
F1 = K(e*e)/r^2
K = 8.99×109 N m2 C^-2
e = 1.60217662 × 10^-19 Coulombs
r = Bohr's radius = 5.29×10^-11 m
F1 = 4.357*10^20 N
2. Dipole gravity distraction force:
This calculates the net dipole elongation force acting on the hydrogen atom.
F2 = K(n*e*e)/L^2
K = 8.99×109 N m2 C^-2
e = 1.60217662 × 10^-19 Coulombs
n = The dipole mass of earth divided by the dipole mass of one proton = (5.972*10^24) / (1.673*10^-27)
L = The distance between the hydrogen atom and the integrated center of effort of the dipole mass in earth, which is is at the center of the earth = the radius of the earth = 6378*10^3 m
F2 = 1.468*10^11 N
Assuming a linear relationship between relative dipole elongation force and relative hydrogen clock frequency, the error in clock frequency at the surface of the earth caused by Coulomb dipole gravity should be:
F2 / F1 = (1.468*10^11)/(4.357*10^20) = 3.369*10^-10
The atomic clock error to be expected at ground level, calculated using the effects of Coulomb polarization corresponds within 0.103*10^-10 to observed values. The difference in the last decimal is most likely the result of approximating the electron orbital as circular when in reality it is slightly elliptical.
Deuterium binding energy
As a third method to quantify the expected consequences of Coulomb polarization, computer simulations were performed to map the locations of all charges including distances between charges and the directions of all dipole axis in deuterium. All attracting and repelling Coulomb binding forces were then calculated. The compound of these forces is the net binding force holding the proton and the neutron together in a deuterium atom. This compound net binding force, also known as strong force, is a short reach force which upon forced separation between the proton and the neutron goes to zero before turning into a repelling force. Integrating the compound binding force over the distance between maximum strong force and the attraction/repulsion cross over point yields the total binding energy of deuterium.
Neutrons and Protons
A mechanism similar to the dipole formation in interacting atoms has been observed in computer simulations involving quarks in interacting neutrons and protons. A neutron consists of one +2/3e up quark and two -1/3e down quarks giving the neutron an overall charge of zero.
Links to neutron gravity simulations:
Charge posturing and Coulomb attraction between 2 neutrons:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmsssEfkq1I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvdcgkuVLsv